Frankincense And Myrrh - The Incenses Of Legends And Romance From 'Arabia The Fortunate'
Myrrh (top), gold (middle), frankincense (bottom)
BY: Habeeb Salloum/Contributing writer
“Frankincense – the very word has magic about it. The Three Kings with their gifts to Baby Jesus – gold, frankincense and myrrh – the Song of Solomon and the hills of frankincense, the incense used by the Romans. Dhofar was the chief source of this heaven-sent commodity.”
So wrote P. Searle in Dawn Over Oman when talking about this fragrant resin of the ancient world.
Hundreds of years before the discovery of oil in the Arabian peninsula, trading in this incense and its twin, myrrh, gave rise to the prosperous Arab civilizations of Awsan, Hadramaut, Ma`in, Qataban, Saba and Himyar. The source of endless wealth, these fragrances became, at times, almost priceless.
For centuries, demand exceeded supply and these scented gums were worth their weight in gold. Labelled as gifts fit for kings, they were highly valued for their aromatics, drug and medicinal properties and were used extensively in religious ceremonies. Lauded, hoarded, written and sung about, and just about worshipped, they formed the bases of mystery and romance.
Dhofar, located in southern Oman, the Ophir of Biblical fame, was the source of these ancient resins. It is believed that they were employed about 5,000 years ago by the pharaohs to appease their gods and later used extensively as medicines and in the religious services of the Mesopotamian, Chinese, Indian and Roman civilizations.
They were carried north by camel caravans across the Arabian Desert through Mecca and Medina to Petra, Damascus, Aleppo, Palmyra, and beyond; or shipped by sea from the now ruined Omani port of Sumhuram to Africa, China and India. During the trade’s heyday, 1000 BC to 300 AD, more than 3,000 tons were traded annually along these pathways.
For hundreds of years the `Frankincense Routes’, surrounded by a halo of secrecy and fable, were jealously guarded. The merchants of southern Arabia took no chances – they kept them totally hidden. For over 2,000 years, these pathways were the foundation of Arabia’s fame and prosperity.
In the main, what made frankincense and myrrh so scarce and valuable was their use in religious ceremonies. They formed an essential element in pagan rituals and immense amounts were burnt as offerings to the gods.
Where cremation was practised, they were employed to conceal the smell of human flesh and the ancient Egyptians used large amounts when embalming the dead. According to the Greek traveller and historian, Herodotus, (484-424 B.C.) the priests in the Temple of Baal in Babylon annually utilized at least two and a half tons of frankincense, and the Roman naturalist Pliny records that Nero, driven to remorse after the death of his wife, Poppaea, burnt a whole year’s supply at her funeral.
In Judaism, frankincense was for centuries a part of the sanctuary’s incense, and it was one of the gifts the Queen of Sheba brought Solomon. According to legend, the three Wise Men, before following the star to Bethlehem, met in Dhofar and from there carried frankincense and myrrh – more highly prized than gold in that era – as gifts for baby Jesus.
During the early years of Christianity, the burning of frankincense was incorporated into the Christian religion. It remained an essential part of worship, but on a diminishing scale. This modest use continued to make it important in the economy of Dhofar. When in 1285 A.D. Marco Polo visited that country, he wrote that frankincense was its chief export.
Frankincense Oil is steam distilled from the sap of the boswellia tree.
Frankincense is the dried sap of a desert shrub of the genus boswellia carteri, which grows wild in Oman and, to a much lesser extent in the neighbouring Hadramaut, Somalia and parts of Ethiopia. Short and knotty and with no trunk, it is more a bush than a tree. Growing to about 3 m (10 FT) high with a tight labyrinth of branches, it is shrub-like in appearance and produces about ten pounds of resin a year. It has never been domesticated, resisting cultivation in every country in which it is not native. The tree producing the finest quality, known as `Silver Frankincense’, is found in the steppe edging Jabil Qarra, near the Omani port of Salalah.
Myrrh, deriving its name from the Arabic murr (bitter), is the sap obtained from a small thorny tree that grows in the same parts of the world as frankincense. A shrub of the genus commiphora myrrha, it grows to about 4.5 m (15 FT) feet high.
Between March and August, a shallow incision is made through the bark of the larger branches of both types of trees and the sap is allowed to drip down for about five days. The hardened amber-clear and tear-shaped crystals of frankincense and the reddish-brown gum of myrrh that have oozed out are then scraped off and collected.
Frankincense, known in Arabic as al-luban, the origin of the English term olibanum – meaning oriental frankincense – is, along with its sister myrrh, almost odourless until warmed. Both resins when burned become highly aromatic giving out a delicate and unique seductive fragrance.
In the ancient and medieval worlds, frankincense and myrrh were believed to have medicinal properties. The well-known Arab physician Avicenna (980-1037 A.D.) recommended them for a wide range of diseases. They were employed as fumigants, antidotes to poisons and to stop haemorrhages. Doctors prescribed them both as external and internal remedies and they were used as ingredients in ointments and poultices. In the early civilizations when plagues were often rampant, frankincense and myrrh were used extensively as common disinfectants.
Today, research has established that their use for medicine by the ancients had some merit. The phenol created by the fumes when these incenses are burned has antifungal and antiseptic qualities that offer some relief for lung infections and asthma. In modern Oman, frankincense is, at times, chewed to relieve sore throats and upset stomachs. Also, in India, modern studies have found that myrrh lowers cholesterol levels and helps to prevent heart diseases.
In the Middle Ages, more than for their medicinal attributes, both these resins were much sought after for their aromatic qualities. A favoured burning scent was made from three parts benzoin and one part myrrh. Even in our times, their use as perfumes continue. In Oman, a perfume called Amouge, whose main ingredient is frankincense, has been created and is now sold throughout the world. This, no doubt, will ensure that frankincense will continue to play a role in our modern times.
Throughout the Arabian Peninsula, frankincense and myrrh are used to scent homes, beards, hair, and the clothing of both men and women. Also, a fine kohl (eye liner) made from soot, accumulated by the smoke of burning frankincense is popular with the ladies. At the same time, this smoke is often used as an insect repellent.
Frankincense and Myrrh Grains
However, in most of the world, during this century, synthetics have to a large extent virtually replaced both frankincense and myrrh. Only in Oman, where, besides their other uses, peasants burn them to drive out the evil eye in cows whose milk has begun to wane, are these aromatic resins still gathered, but on a very small scale.
A part is exported to India and a minuscule amount is used in the modern cosmetic and medical industries and, to some extent, in Christian rituals. The Eastern Orthodox Church employs some frankincense in its ceremonies, but in most other houses of worship, artificial resins have replaced these fragrant gums.
Today, in most countries, the mystique of frankincense and myrrh has largely disappeared. While they are still popular (here’s one example of commercially available incense), the days are long gone when these sweet-scented incenses were the most valuable commodities on earth. The age of ‘Arabia Felix’ (Fortunate Arabia) or ‘Arabia Odorifera’ (Fragrant Arabia) has faded into the mist of history. Only in the romantic lure of legends and the daily life of a few are they still important.